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From Scroll to Scripture: The Formation of the New Testament Canon

by Shirley Paulson, PhD

A closeup of part of the illuminated letter P in the 1407 CE Latin Bible on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. It was hand written in Belgium, by Gerard Brils. The illumination is a capital letter P since the letters following are ETRUS, making the word PETRUS (Peter in Latin). The text is the beginning of the First Epistle of Peter. Photo by Adrian Pingstone, public domain image.

Most Bible readers probably learned the books of the Bible and their order without stopping to wonder how those specific books came to be included in that collection—and why they’re always arranged in the same order. It’s tempting to assume that Jesus or his apostles had a hand in forming the New Testament, but that doesn’t hold up under closer examination. The books were written after their deaths, sometimes many decades later. So, who decided which writings should become canon? How was their authority established? And why these 27 books, and not others?

A wide range of factors contributed to the long and gradual process of forming the New Testament canon. Surprisingly, technology played a role early on. The gradual shift from scrolls to codices (bound papyrus pages) allowed multiple texts to be compiled into a single book. But then, this technological change introduced an entirely new set of questions: Which writings should be grouped together? In what order?

The answers to those questions evolved over centuries. As written texts gradually replaced oral traditions, decisions about which writings merited wider distribution became more significant—and more powerful. Yet canons did not emerge by decree or committee vote. They arose through the repeated use of particular texts by communities of faith over long periods of time.

This means that ordinary believers, not just religious leaders, helped shape the canon. Communities across the ancient world contributed more to the process than we might expect. While some authoritative men (and they were all men) offered strong opinions about which texts were useful or correct, the eventual canon reflected a much broader practice of communal reading, worship, and study.

Importantly, the books of the New Testament were all written in the first two centuries—before there was any notion of “writing a Bible.” These texts circulated independently in early Christ communities, alongside the Hebrew Bible. Several of these communities or groups had leaders, but, as in Judaism, there was no central authority among Jesus followers deciding which writings were right or wrong. The idea of a closed, definitive collection came much later.

Key Moments in the Long Formation of the New Testament Canon

1. Marcion (Early 2nd Century): A devoted Jesus-follower, Marcion accepted only Paul’s letters and most of the Gospel of Luke and rejected the other seven or eight gospels entirely. His sharply limited approval of useful writings prompted a reaction from other Christ groups.
2. Tatian (Late 2nd Century): Troubled by inconsistencies and contradictions in the four primary gospels, Tatian created a harmonized version—The Diatessaron—combining Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John into a single account. His effort highlighted a popular effort to unify the historical accounts of Jesus’s life.
3. Irenaeus (Late 2nd Century): A prominent leader in a French community of Christ followers, Irenaeus agreed with the use of the same four gospels Tatian was using, although he never compiled them into a single book. His determination to limit the number of useful gospels was an act of opposition against the Valentinian Christians’ writings, a rival group he sought to discredit.
4. The Muratorian Fragment (c. 180 CE): Long believed to be evidence of a formal canon for all Christians due to its listing of books, this ancient textual fragment has more recently been considered one of many community lists. It is more likely a reflection of one community’s practices rather than a widespread authoritative list. Listen to David Brakke’s Bible and Beyond interview on this subject.
5. The Secret Book of James: Found among the Nag Hammadi writings, this text hints at an elite group engaged in deep study and open to a wider range of writings and used in a variety of settings, such as private study, group worship, and hymns. It shows that not all early Christians aimed to limit or fix a canon—some wanted to expand their sacred library.
6. Clement of Alexandria (Early 3rd Century): An influential Christian teacher, Clement openly disagreed with Irenaeus and dismissed the Gospel of Mark as central scripture. Debates like this show how unsettled the canon remained.
7. Emperor Constantine (4th Century): After converting to Christianity, Constantine requested a list of important Christian books. The list he received included all 27 books now in the canon, but six of these were marked as “disputed” or “spurious.”
8. Athanasius’ Easter Letter (367 CE): This letter was an Easter greeting to Athanasius’ flock and included a list of books he labeled as a “new testament” to accompany the “old one.” But he issued it only to his jurisdiction and did not suggest it as an authoritative canon.
9. Eusebius of Caesarea (Early 4th Century): A church historian who tried to organize and categorize the different writings already in use. His classifications were tentative, reflecting the ongoing debate.
10. Consensus by the 6th–7th Century: Gradually, widespread usage led to consensus. No council or leader ever officially declared the canon closed, but common practice established which books were read, copied, and passed down.

Final reflections on the evolution of the Christian canon

As the list of books began to take tangible form, the arrangement of books also became an issue of concern. The importance of a text was generally conveyed by placing it as close to the beginning as possible, so the ordering of the books of the New Testament reflected another type of power at play.

The lack of chronological order usually frustrates modern readers who prefer historical sequence. Yet none of the authors were writing what we now would think of as ‘history’—they were offering theological reflections on Jesus and his significance in their communities.

In the end, the New Testament is less a snapshot of Jesus’ life and more a testament to what early Christians remembered, valued, and passed on to future generations. The books chosen—and the order they appear in—tell us as much about early Christian identity as they do about the events they describe.